Special thanks go to Dr. Ken Chew and Dr. Sandra Shumway for leading me to this important and exciting research. Thanks go to everyone at the Washington Department of Health (WDOH), Washington Public Health Laboratories, and Washington Department of Natural Resources (WDNR) for their support in this research: administrative, technical, lab space, training for mouse bioassay procedures, personnel time, supplies, geoduck fishery information. Thanks go to John Wekell and Bob Conrad for statistical advice, and John Hurst for mouse bioassay advice. Thanks go to Dr. Vera Trainer for her assistance with the receptor binding assay work at the NOAA/NMFS Montlake Laboratory. Geoducks, divers, boat operators, and boat time were provided by the WDNR and Puyallup tribe. Funding for this research was provided by the Washington SeaGrant Program, WDNR, the Tulalip tribe, WDOH, and the School of Fisheries. Salaries and tuition were provided by the Victor and Tamara Loosanoff Endowed Fellowship.
| [Homepage][Introduction] |
| [Methods][Results][Preliminary conclusions] |
|
References
Aalvik, B. and K. Framstad 1981. Assay and detoxification experiments with mytilotoxin in mussels (Mytilus edulis) from Nordasstraumen, western Norway, 1979 and 1980. Sarsia 66:143-146. Adams, W. and J. Miescier 1980. Commentary on AOAC method for paralytic shellfish poisoning. Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists 63(6):1336-1343. Adams, W. and S. Furfari 1984. Evaluation of laboratory performance of the AOAC method for PSP toxin in shellfish. Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists 67(6):1147-1148. Andersen, A. 1971. Spawning, growth and spatial distribution of the geoduck clam, Panope generosa Gould, in Hood Canal, Washington. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle. Association of Official Analytical Chemists 1965. Paralytic shellfish poisoning biological method. Official Methods of Analysis of the AOAC, 10th ed. Arlington, D.C., pp. 282-284. Barchi, R. 1988. Probing the molecular structure of the voltage dependent sodium channel. Annual Review of Neuroscience 11:455-495. Beitler,
M. and J. Liston 1990. Uptake and tissue distribution of PSP
toxins in butter clams. In: Graneli, E., B. Sundstrom, L. Edler,
and D. Anderson (eds.). Toxic Marine Phytoplankton, pp. 257-262.
Elsevier, New York. Bricelj, V., J. Lee, A. Cembella, and D. Anderson 1990. Uptake kinetics of paralytic shellfish toxins from the dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense in the mussel Mytilus edulis. Marine Ecological Progress Series 63:177-188. Bricelj, V., J. Lee, and A. Cembella 1991. Influence of dinoflagellate cell toxicity on uptake and loss of paralytic shellfish toxins in the northern quahog, Mercenaria mercenaria. Marine Ecological Progress Series 74:33-46. Bricelj, V. and A. Cembella 1993. Fate of gonyautoxins in surfclams, Spisula solidissima, grazing upon toxigenic Alexandrium. In: P. Lassus, G. Arzul, E. Erard, P. Gentien, and C. Marcaillou (eds.). Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Toxic Marine Phytoplankton, pp. 413-418, Nantes, France. Lavoisier, Paris. Bricelj, V. and D. Laby 1996. Differential sensitivity and PSP toxin accumulation in two clam species, Spisula solidissima and Mya arenaria. Abstracts from the 88th Meeting of the National Shellfisheries Association (NSA), April 14-18, 1996, Baltimore, Maryland. In: Journal of Shellfish Research 15(2):502. Bricelj, V. and S. Shumway 1998. Paralytic shellfish toxins in bivalve molluscs: Occurrence, transfer kinetics and biotransformation. Reviews in Fisheries Science. Cembella, A., J. Sullivan, G. Boyer, F. Taylor, and R. Andersen 1987. Variation in paralytic shellfish toxin composition within the Protogonyaulax tamarensis/catenella species complex. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 15:171-186. Cembella, A., S. Shumway, and N. Lewis 1993. Anatomical distribution and spatio-temporal variation in paralytic shellfish toxin composition in two bivalve species from the Gulf of Maine. Journal of Shellfish Research 12(2):389-403. Cembella,
A. and S. Shumway 1993. Anatomical and spatio-temporal variation
in PSP toxin composition in natural populations of the surfclam
Spisula solidissima in the Gulf of Maine. In: P. Lassus, G. Arzul,
E. Erard, P. Gentien, and C. Marcaillou (eds.). Proceedings of
the 6th International Conference on Toxic Marine Phytoplankton,
pp. 421-426, Nantes, France. Lavoisier, Paris.
Chambers, J., and H. Magnusson 1950. Seasonal variations in toxicity of butter clams from selected Alaska beaches. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Special Scientific Report: Fisheries Series No. 53. Chambers, J., C. Carlson, and H. Magnusson 1951. Technological studies on the Alaska butter clam, Saxidomus giganteus IV: Variability of beds within individual bays. Project Report, Fishery Products Laboratory, Ketchikan, Alaska, 9p. Chiang, R. 1985. A macroscopic measurement of relative paralytic shellfish poison levels in British Columbia, Canada. In: Anderson, D., A. White, and D. Baden (eds.). Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms, pp. 451-456, St. Andrews, New Brunswick, Canada. Elsevier, New York. Clem, J. 1978. Toxic dinoflagellates, shellfish and public health. In: D. Taylor and H. Seliger, (eds.). Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms, pp. 33-36, Key Biscayne, Florida. Elsevier, North Holland. Compagnon, D., G. Lembeye, N. Marcos, N. Ruiz-Tagle, and N. Lagos 1998. Accumulation of paralytic shellfish poisoning in the bivalve Aulacomya ater and two carnivorous gastropods Concholepas concholepas and Argobuccinum ranelliformes during an Alexandrium catenella bloom in southern Chile. Journal of Shellfish Research 17(1): 67-73. Dale, B., J. Hurst, and C. Yentsch 1978. Toxicity in resting cysts of the red tide dinoflagellate Gonyaulax excavata from deeper water coastal sediments. Science 201(4362), pp. 1223-1225. Davio, S. and P. Fontelo 1983. A competitive displacement assay to detect saxitoxin and tetrodotoxin. Analytical Biochemistry 141:199-204. Doucette, G., M. Logan, J. Ramsdell, and F. Van Dolah 1997. Development and preliminary validation of a microtiter plate based receptor-binding assay for paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins. Toxicon 35(5):625-636. Gainey, L. Jr. and S. Shumway 1988. A compendium of the responses of bivalve molluscs to toxic dinoflagellates. Journal of Shellfish Research 7(4):623-628. Goodwin, C. 1973. Subtidal geoducks of Puget Sound, Washington. Washington Department of Fisheries, Technical Report No.13. 63pp. Hallegraeff, G. 1993. A review of harmful algal blooms and their apparent global increase. Phycologia 32(2):79-99. Horner, R., D. Garrison, and F.G. Plumley 1997. Harmful algal blooms and red tide problems on the U.S. west coast. Limnology and Oceanography 42:1076-1088. Hungerford, J. and M. Wekell 1993. Control measures in shellfish and finfish industries in the USA. In: I. Falconer (ed.), Algal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water, pp. 117-128. Academic Press, London. Hunt, D., N. Tufts, and J. Hughes 1978. Monitoring Programs and Epidemiology. In: D. Taylor and H. Seliger, (eds.). Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms, pp. 489-482, Key Biscayne, Florida. Elsevier, North Holland. Hurst, J. 1979. Shellfish monitoring in Maine. In: D. Taylor and H. Seliger, (eds.). Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms, pp. 231-234, Key Biscayne, Florida. Elsevier, North Holland. Hurst, J., R. Selvin, J. Sullivan, C. Yentsch, and R. Guillard 1985. Intercomparison of various assay methods for the detection of shellfish toxins. In: Anderson, D., A. White, and D. Baden (eds.). Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms, pp. 427-432, St. Andrews, New Brunswick, Canada. Elsevier, New York. Hwang, D., S. Lu, T. Noguchi, K. Hashimoto, I. Liao, and S. Jeng 1990. Seasonal variations of paralytic toxins in purple clam, Soletellina diphos. Journal of the Fisheries Society of Taiwan 17(4):305-311. Jellet, J. 1993. Phytotoxins and shellfish aquaculture. World Aquaculture 24(4):32-43. Johnson, N. and S. Kotz 1969. Discrete distributions. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 328pp. Ketchikan Public Health Laboratories (KPHL) 1981. Department of Environmental Conservation, Ketchikan, Alaska, (unpublished reports). Krueger, B., R. Ratzlaff, G. Strichartz, and M. Blaustein 1979. Saxitoxin binding to synaptosomes, membranes, and solubilized binding sites from rat brain. Journal of Membrane Biology 50:287-310. Lagos, N., D. Compagnon, M. Seguel, and Y. Oshima 1996. Paralytic shellfish toxin composition: a quantitative analysis in Chilean mussels and dinoflagellate. In: T. Yasumoto, Y. Oshima, and Y. Fukuyo, (eds.). Harmful and Toxic Algal Blooms, pp. 121-124. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, Paris. Lassus, P., L. Martial, M. Bardouil, and M. Bohec 1993. Influence of initial toxicity and extraction procedure on paralytic toxin changes in the mussel. Toxicon 31(3):237-242. Lesser, M. and S. Shumway 1993. Effects of toxic dinoflagellates on clearance rates and survival in juvenile bivalve molluscs. Journal of Shellfish Research 12(2):377-381. Lutz, R. and L. Incze 1978. Impact of toxic dinoflagellate blooms on the North American shellfish industry. In: D. Taylor and H. Seliger, (eds.). Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms, pp. 476-483, Key Biscayne, Florida. Elsevier, North Holland. Mackenzie, L., D. White, and J. Adamson 1996. Temporal variation and tissue localization of paralytic shellfish toxins in the New Zealand tuatua (surfclam), Paphies subtriangulata. Journal of Shellfish Research 15(3):735-740. Magnusson, H., C. Carlson, and J. Chambers 1951a. Technological studies on the Alaska butter clam, Saxidomus giganteus II: The "Mouse Test". Project Report, Fishery Products Laboratory, Ketchikan, Alaska, 22p. Magnusson, H., C. Carlson, and J. Chambers 1951b. Technological studies on the Alaska butter clam, Saxidomus giganteus III: Variability of clams from a single plot. Project Report, Fishery Products Laboratory, Ketchikan, Alaska, 9p. McFarren, E., MS 1957. Chemical determination of paralytic shellfish poison in clams. In: Conference on Shellfish Toxicology. United States Public Health Service, Special Publication, pp.77-95. McFarren, E., M. Schafer, J. Campbell, K. Lewis, E. Jensen, and E. Schantz 1960. Public health significance of paralytic shellfish poison. In: C. Chichester, E. Mrak, and G. Stewart, (eds.). Advances in Food Research, pp. 135-179. Academic Press, New York. McFarren, E. 1962. Present status of the paralytic shellfish poison problem. Proceedings of the Shellfish Sanitation Workshop, Nov. 1961, Washington, D.C., United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, pp.275-277. Medcof, J., A. Leim, A.B. Needler, A.W. Needler, J. Gibbard, and J. Naubert 1947. Paralytic shellfish poisoning on the Canadian Atlantic coast. Bulletin of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 75:1-32. Motulsky, H. 1995. Analyzing competitive binding data. In: The GraphPad guide to analyzing radioligand binding data, pp. 7-10. Online. Internet. Accessed: February 1999. Available: http://www.graphpad.com/www/welcome.html. Neal, R. 1967. Fluctuations in the levels of paralytic shellfish toxin in four species of lamellibranch molluscs near Ketchikan, Alaska, 1963-1965. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle. Needler, A.B. 1949. Paralytic shellfish poisoning and Gonyaulax tamarensis. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 7(8):490-504. Nishitani, L. and K. Chew 1984. Recent developments in paralytic shellfish poisoning research. Aquaculture 39:317-329. Nishitani, L. and K. Chew 1988. PSP toxins in the Pacific coast states: monitoring programs and effects on bivalve industries. Journal of Shellfish Research 7(4):653-669. Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW). Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling, and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction (1994). 133pp. Online. Internet. Accessed: 4 February 1999. Available: http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/cwc/text/index.html Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW). Background Paper on Saxitoxin Transfers. EC-VIII/TS.3, Executive Council, 28th January 1998. Oshima, T., H. Sugino, H. Itakura, M. Hirota, and T. Yasumoto 1990. Comparative studies on paralytic shellfish toxin profile of dinoflagellates and bivalves. In: E. Graneli, B. Sundstrom, L. Edler, and D. Anderson, (eds.). Toxic Marine Phytoplankton, pp. 479-485. Elsevier. Oshima, Y., S. Blackburn, and G. Hallegraff 1993. Comparative study on paralytic shellfish toxin profiles of the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum from three different countries. Marine Biology 116:471-476. Park, D., W. Adams, S. Graham, and R. Jackson 1986. Variability of mouse bioassay for determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins. Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists 69(3):547-550. Prakash, A. and J. Medcof 1962. Hydrographic and meteorological factors affecting shellfish toxicity at Head Harbor, New Brunswick. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 19(1):101-112. Prakash, A., J. Medcof, and A. Tennant 1971. Paralytic shellfish poisoning in eastern Canada. Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Bulletin No. 177: 87pp. Quayle, D. 1969. Paralytic shellfish poisoning in British Columbia. Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Bulletin 168, Ottawa. Quilliam, M., A. Cembella, A. Windust, and D. Richard 1998. A comparison of saxitoxin calibration standards by mouse bioassay and chemical analysis methods. Proceedings of the 6th Canadian Workshop on Harmful Marine Algae, St. Andrews, New Brunswick, Canada. (In press). Ragelis, E. (ed.) 1984. Seafood Toxins. American Chemical Society Symposium Series 262. 186th Meeting of the American Chemical Society, August 28- September 2, Washington, D.C., 460pp. RaLonde,
R. 1996. Paralytic shellfish poisoning: the Alaska problem. Alaska's
Marine Resources Rensel, J. 1993. Factors controlling paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) in Puget Sound, Washington. Journal of Shellfish Research 12(2):371-376. Rippey, S. 1994. Technical report on worldwide seafood borne disease outbreaks from 1793-1993. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Food and Drug Administration, Northeast Seafood Laboratory Branch, North Kingstown, Rhode Island. Saunders, S., T. Sample, and R. Matsuda 1982. Paralytic shellfish poisoning: Its history, processes, and impacts as applicable to Puget Sound. Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Task Group Report, Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle, Water Pollution Control Department. Schantz, E. 1966. Chemical studies on shellfish poisons, pp. 1-34. In: W. Felsing, (ed.). Proceedings of the Joint Seminar on North Pacific Clams, Alaska Department of Health and Welfare, United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service. Selvin, R., C. Lewis, C. Yentsch, and J. Hurst 1984. Seasonal persistence of resting cyst toxicity in the dinoflagellate Gonyaulax tamarensis var. excavata. Toxicon 22:817-820. Shumway, S. 1985. Phycotoxin-related shellfish poisoning: bivalve molluscs are not the only vectors. Reviews in Fisheries Science 3(1):1-31. Shumway, S. and T. Cucci 1987. The effects of the toxic dinoflagellate Protogonyaulax tamarensis on the feeding and behavior of bivalve molluscs. Aquatic Toxicology 10:9-27. Shumway, S., S. Sherman-Caswell, and J. Hurst 1988. Paralytic shellfish poisoning in Maine: monitoring a monster. Journal of Shellfish Research 7(4):643-652. Shumway, S. 1989. Toxic algae: A serious threat to shellfish aquaculture. World Aquaculture 20(4):65-74. Shumway, S. 1990. A review of the effects of algal blooms on shellfish and aquaculture. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 21(2):65-92. Shumway, S., S. Sherman, A. Cembella, and R. Selvin 1994. Accumulation of paralytic shellfish toxins by surfclams, Spisula solidissima (Dillwyn 1897) in the Gulf of Maine: seasonal changes, distribution between tissues, and notes on feeding habits. Natural Toxins 2:236-251. Sommer, H. and K. Meyer 1937. Paralytic shellfish poisoning. Archives of Pathology 24:560-598. Sparks, A. and A. Sribhibhadh 1961. Status of paralytic shellfish toxicity studies in Washington. Unpublished paper given at the Shellfish Sanitation Workshop, Washington D. C., November 28-30. Sribhibhadh, A. 1963. Seasonal variations of paralytic shellfish toxicity in the California mussel, Mytilus californianus Conrad, and Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas (Thunberg), along the Strait of Juan de Fuca and in Willapa Bay. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle. Sullivan,
J. 1982. Paralytic shellfish poisoning: analytical and biochemical
investigations. Sullivan, J., W. Iwaoka, and J. Liston 1983. Enzymatic transformation of PSP toxins in the littleneck clam (Protothaca staminea). Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 114:465-472. Sullivan, J. 1988. Methods of analysis for DSP and PSP in shellfish: a review. Journal of Shellfish Research 7(4):587-595. Taylor, F. and R. Horner 1994. Red tides and other problems with harmful algal blooms in Pacific Northwest coastal waters, pp. 175-186. In: Review of the marine environment and biota of Strait of Georgia, Puget Sound and Juan de Fuca Strait. Canadian Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Technical Report 1948. Trainer, V. and M. Poli. (In press). Assays for dinoflagellate toxins, specifically brevetoxin, ciguatoxin and saxitoxin. National Marine Fisheries Service, Northwest Fisheries Science Center. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA 1973. Tidal current charts, Puget Sound southern part. Third ed. National Ocean Survey, Rockville, MD. Van Dolah, F., E. Finley, B. Haynes, G. Doucette, P. Moeller, and J. Ramsdell 1994. Development of rapid and sensitive high throughput pharmacologic assays for marine phycotoxins. Natural Toxins 2:189-196. Van Dolah, F., E. Finley, G. Doucette, P. Moeller, and J. Ramsdell 1995. Development of a sensitive, high throughput domoic acid receptor binding assay utilizing microplate scintillation technology. In: P. Lassus, G. Arzul, E. Erard, P. Gentien, and C. Marcaillou, (eds.). Harmful Marine Algal Blooms, pp. 365-370. Lavoisier, Paris. Wadford, D., R. Danielson and G. Langlois 1992. Higher paralytic shellfish poisoning toxicity observed with lower pH (pH<1) sample extraction. Abstracts from the 43rd Meeting of the Pacific Coast Oyster Growers Association (PCOGA) and National Shellfisheries Association/Pacific Coast Section (NSA/PCS), September 17-19, 1992. In: Journal of Shellfish Research 11(2):556-557. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife 1997. Geoduck Atlas, 36pp. Washington
State Department of Health (WDOH) 1997. Office of Shellfish Programs,
Marine Biotoxins Bulletin. 3pp. Online. Internet. Accessed December
1998. Available: Washington State Department of Health (WDOH) 1998. Public Health Fact Sheet. 3pp. Online. Internet. Accessed December 1998. Available: http://www.doh.wa.gov/Topics/Red_Tide.htm. Wekell, J., R. Lorenzana, M. Hogan, and H. Barnett 1996. Survey of paralytic shellfish poison and domoic acid in Puget Sound predatory gastropods. Journal of Shellfish Research 15(2):231-236. White, A. 1982. Intensification of Gonyaulax blooms and shellfish toxicity in the Bay of Fundy. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 1064: 1-12. White, A., S. Shumway, and J. Nassif 1993. Variation in levels of paralytic shellfish toxins among individual shellfish. In: T. Smayda and Y. Shimizu, (eds.). Toxic Phytoplankton Blooms in the Sea, pp. 441-446. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Zar, J. 1996. Biostatistical Analysis. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
|